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SUFFOLK UNIVERSITYLAW REVIEW [Vol. L:587
formalized a trusteeship agreement with the United Nations to administer these
territories.25 Almost forty years later and pursuant to the obligations of the
trusteeship agreement, the United States entered into these compacts, all of
which recognized the territories' right of self-deterrnination.26 These free
association compacts were carried out under the U.S. treaty powers once the
territories became sovereign and independent nations.
After 1952, the U.S. Supreme Court and other federal courts began placing
these new political entities within the nation's legal structure, but faced
conflicting arguments.27 On one hand, proponents of congressional power
cited the nineteentb-century doctrines of autocracy and plenary powers, while,
on the other hand, opponents espoused democratizing arguments.28 The
Sanchez Valle opinion, quoting Frankfurter, expands the democratizing
aperture of case law regarding the use of territorial powers.29 This sets the
groundwork for the democratic experimentation required to fulfill the
asymmetric legitimacy of tbose areas not incorporated as a state in the Union.l''
Congress's approval of the Puerto Rico Oversight, Management, and Economic
(discussing military control of Marshall lslands); Bureau ofEast Asian and Pacifíc Affairs, U.S. Relations with
Palau, U.S. DEPT. ST.'\TE (feb. 27, 2017), https://www.state.gov/ripaleifbgn/l 840.htm [bttps://perma.cc/ETS
H-HVBC] (detailing history of Palau); Bureau of East Indian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Relations with the
Federated States of Micronesia, U.S. DEP'T. OF STATE (Feb. 25, 2016), https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/ 1839.
htm [https://penna.cc/3Q9Q-2FKX] (recounting hisrory ofU.S. presence in Micronesia).
25. See Act of July 18, 1947, Pub. L. No. 204, ch. 271, 61 Stat. 397 (authorizing trustee agreement with
United Nations).
26. See Compact of free Association Act of 1985, Pub. L. No. 99-239. 99 Stat. 1770 (1986) (enacting
self-government in Micronesia and Marshall Islands).
27. See, e.g., Mora v. Mejías, 206 F.2d 377, 387 (1 st Cir. 1953) (indicating Puerto Rico political entity
joined in union with United States under compact's terms); Mora v. Mejías, 115 F. Supp. 610, 612 (D.P.R.
1953) (recognizing Puerto Rico, like states, "sovereign over matters not ruled by ... Constitution"); Mora v.
Torres, 113 F. Supp. 309, 319 (D.P.R. 1953) (holding Fifth Amendment inapplicable under plenary powers but
applicable under compact's terms).
28. See Calero-Toledo v. Pearson Yacht Leasing Co., 416 U.S. 663, 673-74 (1974) (reaffirming Puerto
Rico's power to determine scope of own legislation); United States v. Rivera Torres, 826 F.2d 151, 154 (lst
Cir. 1987) (affirming Congress's power to legislate Puerto Rico in manner different from U.S. states); United
States v. Quiñones, 758 F.2d 40, 42 (lst Cir. 1985) (determining Congress no longer has plenary power o-ver
Puerto Rico); Cordova v. Chase Manhattan Bank, N.A., 649 F.2d 36, 38 (Ist Cir. 1981) (holding Puerto Rico
considered "state" when applying Sherman Act to activities on island); Moreno Rios v. United States, 256 F.2d
68, 69-72 (Ist Cir. 1958) (determining U.S. criminal law applied to Puerto Rico after achieving commonwealth
status); Guerrido v. Alcoa Steamship Co., 234 F.2d 349, 351-52 (lst Cir. 1956) (accepting argument for
continued application of U.S. maritime law); Figueroa v. Puerto Rico, 232 F.2d 615, 620 (Ist Cir. 1956)
(affuming Puerto Rico's constitution not act of Congress); United States v. Figueroa Rios, 140 F. Supp. 376,
377 (D.P.R. 1956) (considering competing arguments based on Congress's plenary power and Puerto Rico's
new status); Carrión v. González, 125 F. Supp. 819, 820 (D.P.R. 1954) (discussing changed relationship
between United States and Puerto Rico after Law 600); Cosenrino v. Int'l Longshoremen's Ass'n Dist. Council
of Ports of P.R., 126 F. Supp. 420, 422 (D.P.R. 1954) (suggestíng Puerto Rico no longer territory of United
States).
29. See Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle, 136 S. Ct. 1863, 1876 (2016) (recognizing Congress's intent to
provide Puerto Rico with greater autonomy and democracy).
30. Asymmetric legiti.macy is used to mean a democratic legitimation whose form is not tbe same as that
oftbe states ofthe United States.
formalized a trusteeship agreement with the United Nations to administer these
territories.25 Almost forty years later and pursuant to the obligations of the
trusteeship agreement, the United States entered into these compacts, all of
which recognized the territories' right of self-deterrnination.26 These free
association compacts were carried out under the U.S. treaty powers once the
territories became sovereign and independent nations.
After 1952, the U.S. Supreme Court and other federal courts began placing
these new political entities within the nation's legal structure, but faced
conflicting arguments.27 On one hand, proponents of congressional power
cited the nineteentb-century doctrines of autocracy and plenary powers, while,
on the other hand, opponents espoused democratizing arguments.28 The
Sanchez Valle opinion, quoting Frankfurter, expands the democratizing
aperture of case law regarding the use of territorial powers.29 This sets the
groundwork for the democratic experimentation required to fulfill the
asymmetric legitimacy of tbose areas not incorporated as a state in the Union.l''
Congress's approval of the Puerto Rico Oversight, Management, and Economic
(discussing military control of Marshall lslands); Bureau ofEast Asian and Pacifíc Affairs, U.S. Relations with
Palau, U.S. DEPT. ST.'\TE (feb. 27, 2017), https://www.state.gov/ripaleifbgn/l 840.htm [bttps://perma.cc/ETS
H-HVBC] (detailing history of Palau); Bureau of East Indian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Relations with the
Federated States of Micronesia, U.S. DEP'T. OF STATE (Feb. 25, 2016), https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/ 1839.
htm [https://penna.cc/3Q9Q-2FKX] (recounting hisrory ofU.S. presence in Micronesia).
25. See Act of July 18, 1947, Pub. L. No. 204, ch. 271, 61 Stat. 397 (authorizing trustee agreement with
United Nations).
26. See Compact of free Association Act of 1985, Pub. L. No. 99-239. 99 Stat. 1770 (1986) (enacting
self-government in Micronesia and Marshall Islands).
27. See, e.g., Mora v. Mejías, 206 F.2d 377, 387 (1 st Cir. 1953) (indicating Puerto Rico political entity
joined in union with United States under compact's terms); Mora v. Mejías, 115 F. Supp. 610, 612 (D.P.R.
1953) (recognizing Puerto Rico, like states, "sovereign over matters not ruled by ... Constitution"); Mora v.
Torres, 113 F. Supp. 309, 319 (D.P.R. 1953) (holding Fifth Amendment inapplicable under plenary powers but
applicable under compact's terms).
28. See Calero-Toledo v. Pearson Yacht Leasing Co., 416 U.S. 663, 673-74 (1974) (reaffirming Puerto
Rico's power to determine scope of own legislation); United States v. Rivera Torres, 826 F.2d 151, 154 (lst
Cir. 1987) (affirming Congress's power to legislate Puerto Rico in manner different from U.S. states); United
States v. Quiñones, 758 F.2d 40, 42 (lst Cir. 1985) (determining Congress no longer has plenary power o-ver
Puerto Rico); Cordova v. Chase Manhattan Bank, N.A., 649 F.2d 36, 38 (Ist Cir. 1981) (holding Puerto Rico
considered "state" when applying Sherman Act to activities on island); Moreno Rios v. United States, 256 F.2d
68, 69-72 (Ist Cir. 1958) (determining U.S. criminal law applied to Puerto Rico after achieving commonwealth
status); Guerrido v. Alcoa Steamship Co., 234 F.2d 349, 351-52 (lst Cir. 1956) (accepting argument for
continued application of U.S. maritime law); Figueroa v. Puerto Rico, 232 F.2d 615, 620 (Ist Cir. 1956)
(affuming Puerto Rico's constitution not act of Congress); United States v. Figueroa Rios, 140 F. Supp. 376,
377 (D.P.R. 1956) (considering competing arguments based on Congress's plenary power and Puerto Rico's
new status); Carrión v. González, 125 F. Supp. 819, 820 (D.P.R. 1954) (discussing changed relationship
between United States and Puerto Rico after Law 600); Cosenrino v. Int'l Longshoremen's Ass'n Dist. Council
of Ports of P.R., 126 F. Supp. 420, 422 (D.P.R. 1954) (suggestíng Puerto Rico no longer territory of United
States).
29. See Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle, 136 S. Ct. 1863, 1876 (2016) (recognizing Congress's intent to
provide Puerto Rico with greater autonomy and democracy).
30. Asymmetric legiti.macy is used to mean a democratic legitimation whose form is not tbe same as that
oftbe states ofthe United States.
